MAP OF NIGER
Note: Niger is divided into seven regions and the Niamey Capital District.
Niger is a landlocked West African country with a population of
21.5 million people (World Bank 2019a). It gained independence
from France in 1960, and after decades of single-party military rule
it was established as a multiparty democracy in 1991. Since then it
has experienced multiple coups and continuous instability, switching
between democratic and military regimes, with the current president
having held office since 2011 (Thurston 2017). Niger has also struggled
with terrorism and armed conflict, including rebellions by the
Tuareg people in 2007–2009 and around 2013 and incursions by
Boko Haram fighters from northern Nigeria into the country’s southeast
starting in early 2015 (Elischer and Mueller 2018; UNHCR
2019g). The Tillabéri and Tahoua regions in the southwest have also
experienced a recent uptick in attacks by militant groups, forcing
more than 50,000 Nigeriens to flee their homes (UNHCR 2018).
As of 2014, 44.5 percent of Niger’s population lived in poverty,
down from 74.9 percent in 2005. GDP per capita was just $378 in
current US dollars as of 2017, the third lowest in the world among all
countries with available data after Burundi and Malawi (World Bank
2019a). Niger ranks last of all countries in the Human Development
Index at 189th out of 189 countries (UNDP 2018). Seventy-six percent
of employment is in agriculture, while 8 percent is in industry
and 16 percent is in services. Forty percent of GDP comes from
agriculture, 16 percent from industry, and 38 percent from services
(World Bank 2019a).
Niger—and its agricultural sector in particular—is highly exposed
to risks, including drought, locust outbreaks, livestock diseases, food
price spikes, and political instability (World Bank 2013). According
to the vulnerability component of the World Risk Index, it is the third
most vulnerable country in the world, meaning that Niger is particularly
susceptible to and unable to cope with the risks it faces (Heintze et al. 2018). Approximately three-fourths of Niger’s landmass consists
of arid land in the Sahara Desert that receives limited rainfall,
has low levels of irrigation, and has a population reliant on livestock
keeping and limited crop production (World Bank 2013). Increasing
temperatures and the risk of rising variability in rainfall due to climate
change are putting additional pressure on Niger’s resource base and
creating tension over resources among the population (ICRC 2019a).
Agricultural productivity in Niger is low, with crop yields of staples,
including millet and sorghum, below regional averages (FEWS NET
2017b). Niger’s agricultural sector is claimed to be constrained in
part by limited financing, with most farmers having no access to
credit or bank accounts (Cancino 2018).
Source: Authors
Note: Undernourishment values refer to the prevalence of undernourishment for the country’s
population as a whole; child stunting, child wasting, and child mortality refer to the rates
for each indicator for children under the age of five. Data for GHI scores, child stunting, and
child wasting are from 1998–2002 (2000), 2003–2007 (2005), 2008–2012 (2010), and
2014–2018 (2019). Data for undernourishment are from 1999–2001 (2000), 2004–2006
(2005), 2009–2011 (2010), and 2016–2018 (2019). Data for child mortality are from
2000, 2005, 2010, and 2017 (2019). See Appendix A for the formula for calculating GHI
scores and Appendix B for the sources from which the data are compiled.
Niger ranks 101st out of 117 countries according to the 2019 Global Hunger Index, with a 2019 GHI score of 30.2, considered serious, down from 52.1 in 2000, considered extremely alarming. Underlying this improvement are reductions in the values of each of the four indicators used to calculate the GHI scores (Figure 4.2). The prevalence of undernourishment—indicating the percentage of the population with insufficient access to calories—fell between 1999–2001 and 2013–2015. Since 2014–2016, however, it has risen again, driven up by low agricultural production, conflict, population displacement, and increased cereal prices (FAO 2019b; FEWS NET 2016, 2017c). The number of refugees and internally displaced persons in Niger has increased dramatically since 2015 (UNHCR 2017). In Niger’s Diffa region in particular, conflict and population displacement have worsened food insecurity (FAO and WFP 2019).
Niger’s mortality rate for children under age five declined significantly
from 22.4 percent in 2000 to 8.5 percent in 2017. An analysis
of the reduction in child mortality in Niger between 1998 and 2009
showed that the improvement could be attributed largely to increased access to primary health care services for women and children, mass
campaigns focusing on vaccinations and insecticide-treated bed nets,
and improved nutrition programming. While the country did indeed
experience food insecurity during this period, the government and
other organizations were able to provide relief that prevented backsliding
on child nutrition (Amouzou et al. 2012).
Niger’s rates of child stunting, an indicator of chronic undernutrition,
were 53.5 and 54.8 percent, respectively, in 2000 and
2006. The most recent data, from 2016, show the child stunting
rate at 40.6 percent, which is still considered “very high” (de Onis
et al. 2019). Niger’s child wasting rate, indicating acute undernutrition,
has shown some fluctuation; in 2016 it was 10.1 percent
(considered “high” according to de Onis et al. 2019) compared with
16.2 percent in 2000. Child undernutrition rates vary substantially
by region. Stunting levels are at or above 50 percent in Zinder and
Maradi, and the highest wasting rates are in Agadez and Maradi, both
of which are at 12.9 percent (Table 4.1).
Many Nigeriens have poor diets, including low dietary diversity
and a high reliance on staple foods (FEWS NET 2017b). Millet and
sorghum constitute a large portion of the calories consumed by
Nigeriens, particularly among rural people living in poverty (Cheng
and Larochelle 2016). A study of pregnant and lactating women in
Zinder found that only about one in six women reported meeting a
standard measure of minimum dietary diversity (Wessells et al. 2019). Diets of Nigerien infants and young children are woefully inadequate:
just 23.3 percent of infants under 6 months of age are exclusively
breastfed, and only 5.6 percent of children ages 6–23 months consume
a minimum acceptable diet (INS and ICF International 2013).
Exceptionally challenging socioeconomic conditions in Niger create
a difficult environment for food and nutrition security. Niger has one
of the lowest levels of educational attainment and literacy of any country
in the world. Nigeriens average just two years of schooling, and the
adult literacy rate is only 31 percent. The situation is even more dire
for women than for men (UNDP 2018; World Bank 2019a), which has
implications for child nutrition. Parental education at the secondary
level and beyond, especially maternal education, is associated with
lower levels of child stunting, including in Niger (Alderman and Headey
2017). Niger also has one of the highest population growth rates,
at 3.8 percent annually. It has the highest rate of child marriage in
the world, with approximately three-fourths of girls marrying before
the age of 18 (World Bank 2019a; Shepherd 2018). Households in
Niger in which the woman was married at an early age have higher
levels of food insecurity in terms of both dietary diversity and subjective
self-assessments of food security (Steinhaus and Kes 2018).
Table
STUNTING AND WASTING RATES BY REGION, NIGER
Region |
Child stunting (%) |
Child wasting (%) |
Agadez |
33.7 |
12.9 |
Dosso |
38.8 |
7.4 |
Diffa |
31.9 |
11.4 |
Maradi |
53.8 |
12.9 |
Tahoua |
39.0 |
7.7 |
Tillabéri |
33.1 |
9.3 |
Zinder |
50.1 |
11.7 |
Niamey |
19.2 |
8.2 |
Total |
42.2 |
10.3 |
Source: INS-Niger, WFP, and UNICEF (2016).
Note: All indicators are for children under five years of age. Undernourishment values at the regional level are not currently available for Niger. Recent child mortality values
at the regional level are reported separately for urban and rural areas only, not for each
region as a whole (INS-Niger, WFP, and UNICEF 2016). The national child stunting and
wasting estimates here and in Figure 4.2 differ because INS-Niger, WFP, and UNICEF
(2016), which contains subnational values, is cited here, while UNICEF, WHO, and
World Bank (2019), cited in Figure 4.2, includes minor revisions to INS-Niger, WFP,
and UNICEF (2016) and is used to calculate the GHI scores.
|
Various types of interventions have the potential to improve food
security and nutrition in low- and lower-middle-income countries,
including nutrition-specific interventions such as supplementation
and nutrition education programs, and nutrition-sensitive interventions
such as agriculture and cash transfer programs. Research has
shown, however, that the effectiveness of a given approach depends
on the context in which it is implemented, which can vary from country
to country and within country borders. A selection of the impact
evaluation literature presents some of the available evidence on what
has been effective in Niger.
While ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) was developed to
treat child undernutrition, in Niger it has also been shown to be effective as a preventative strategy (Grais 2016). A three-month trial
that included the distribution of daily packets of RUTF to children
succeeded in reducing wasting and mortality among the participants
(Isanaka et al. 2009). Additional trials have found that distribution of
ready-to-use supplementary food (RUSF), which has lower levels of
energy and micronutrients than RUTF and is intended for consumption
along with other complementary foods, can also protect against
child wasting and mortality in certain contexts in Niger (Isanaka et
al. 2010; Grellety et al. 2012).
Cash transfer programs are used widely in low-income countries.
A program in the Zinder region of Niger initiated by the World Food
Programme in 2011 provided beneficiaries with either a cash transfer
or a food transfer, including grains, legumes, and oil, during the
lean season. Those who received the cash transfer were more likely
to buy inexpensive staple foods, whereas those who received the
food transfer consumed the food that was provided and increased
their dietary diversity. These findings suggest that if the goal is to
improve diet quality, food transfers with a mix of food items may be
preferable to cash, although the results do depend on contextual
factors such as proximity of and access to food markets and preferences
for food quantity versus food quality. Also, in cases such
as this, where food transfers are more costly to distribute than cash
transfers, food transfers may reach fewer beneficiaries (Hoddinott,
Sandström, and Upton 2018).
An intervention implemented by Forum Santé Niger and Médecins
Sans Frontières in the Maradi region of Niger in 2011 was intended
to determine whether cash transfers, distribution of supplementary
foods, or a combination of these interventions was most effective
at preventing moderate and severe acute undernutrition of children
during the lean season in Niger. Results showed that the group that
received both cash and supplementary foods fared best—even when
the group that exclusively received cash received a higher cash allotment
to offset the lack of food. This result may have been due to the
low availability of nutritious foods in the market. The authors suggest
that in high-burden contexts such as Niger, it may be optimal
to distribute nutritious foods to all children under two years of age,
while also providing cash transfers to the most vulnerable households
(Langendorf et al. 2014).
In 2010 Concern Worldwide implemented an unconditional cash
transfer program in Niger in response to the 2009–2010 drought and
food crisis. The program included three different program designs:
(1) provision of cash via envelope; (2) provision of cash via mobile
phone as well as provision of a mobile phone; and (3) provision of
cash via envelope as well as provision of a mobile phone. The second
group bought more types of food items and had higher dietary
diversity than the other groups, possibly because receiving the mobile transfer was more flexible and less time consuming for the recipients.
However, providing cash via mobile phone does present challenges:
beneficiaries have to be instructed on how to use the phone, and a
sufficient number of mobile money agents must be available in the
program area (Aker et al. 2016).
Agricultural interventions can also improve food security and
nutrition. Beginning in the 1980s, Nigerien farmers developed a
technique known as farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR)
to grow and reproduce trees and shrubs that can be used for livestock
fodder, fuel, and food. The trees also reduce wind speed,
erosion, and evaporation in nearby agricultural fields and improve
soil fertility. Over time, FMNR is estimated to have enabled the
production of 500,000 additional tons of cereals per year in Niger,
boosting Nigeriens’ food security (WRI et al. 2008; Reij, Tappan,
and Smale 2009).